Budd-Chiari syndrome: current perspectives and controversies.

Budd-Chiari syndrome (BCS) is a rare disorder caused by hepatic venous outflow obstruction with a wide spectrum of etiologies. Clinical manifestations are so heterogeneous that the diagnosis should be considered in any patients with acute or chronic liver disease. Therapeutic modalities for BCS have improved dramatically during the last few years. The concept of a step-wise treatment strategy has been established, including anticoagulation, thrombolysis, percutaneous recanalization, transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt, surgery and liver transplantation. However, this strategy is primarily based on experts' opinions and retrospective case series, rather than prospective randomized trials. Furthermore, an earlier use of TIPS has been proposed in selected cases because of a relatively high mortality from BCS patients who underwent medical therapy alone. Herein, we review the advances in the classification, etiology, clinical presentation, diagnosis and treatment of BCS.